Tìm số dư trong phép chia 3^{2020} chia cho 13

Answers

Answer 1

Your question translates to computing [tex]3^{2020} \pmod {13}[/tex].

Recall Euler's theorem: if [tex]\gcd(a,n)=1[/tex] (that is, [tex]a[/tex] and [tex]n[/tex] are relatively prime), then [tex]a^{\varphi(n)}\equiv1\pmod n[/tex], where [tex]\varphi(n)[/tex] denotes Euler's totient function, which counts the number of positive integers relatively prime to [tex]n[/tex].

Since 13 is prime, we have [tex]\phi(13)=12[/tex]. Then by Euler's theorem,

[tex]3^{12} \equiv 1 \pmod{13}[/tex]

Now, observe that 2020 = 168×12 + 4, so that

[tex]3^{2020} \equiv 3^{168\times12+4} \equiv \left(3^{12}\right)^{168} \times 3^4 \equiv 1^{168} \times 3^4 \equiv 3^4 \pmod{13}[/tex]

and since 3⁴ = 81 = 6×13 + 3, we end up with

[tex]3^{2020} \equiv 81 \equiv 3 \pmod{13}[/tex]

so the remainder upon dividing 3²⁰²⁰ by 13 is 3.


Related Questions

What is the median of these figure skating ratings?
5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0

Answers

Answer:

5.0 6.0 7.0 7.5 8.0 9.0 10.0

arranging the following

5.0 , 6.0 , 7.0 , 7.5 , 8.0 , 9.0, 10.0

7.5 is the median..

Sum of 1/2*3 +1/3*4 +1/4*5 ..1/99*100

Answers

Answer:

11∗2+13∗4+15∗6+⋯+199∗100=?

=(1−12)+(13−14)+(15−16)+⋯+(199−1100)

=(1+13+15+17+⋯+199)−(12+14+16+⋯+1100)

=(1+13+15+17+⋯+199)−12(1+12+13+⋯+150)

=∑k=15012k−1−∑k=15012k

Continue further.

What is the slope of the line that passes through the points (-7, -2)(−7,−2) and (-15, -14)(−15,−14)? Write your answer in simplest form.

Answers

Answer:

please help me find em ah and I will be able to do what I can

《QUESTION 1》
The length of the side of a square is 50 cm and the breadth of a rectangle is 25 cm. If the areas of the square and the rectangle are equal, find the length of the rectangle.

《QUESTION 2》
A wire is in the shape of a rectangle with length 6 cm. It is bent to form a square whose side is 5 cm. Find the breadth of the rectangle. Also, calculate the areas of both the rectangle and the square and find which shape encloses more areas.​

Answers

The length of the rectangle is 100cm.

The breadth of the rectangle is 4cm.

The square encloses more area than the rectangle.

What is the length of the rectangle?

The first step is to determine the area of the square.

Area of a square = length² = 50² = 2500 cm²

Area of a rectangle = length x width

length = area / width

2500 / 25 = 100cm

What is the breadth of the rectangle?

The first step is to determine the perimeter of the square.

Perimeter = 4 x length

4 x 5 = 20cm

Perimeter of a rectangle = 2(length + width)

breadth = (perimeter / 2) - length

(20 / 2) - 6

10 - 6 = 4cm

Area of the square = 5 x 5 = 25

Area of the rectangle = 6 x 4 = 24

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A group of students at Brunel university took a test in marketing and they needed to score 50 to pass. The results showed that the final grades have a mean of 62 and a standard deviation of 8. Suppose we approximate the distribution of these grades by normal distribution. Based on this information, you are required to perform the following; a) what percetage(to 3 decimals) of the students scored more than 78? B) what percentage of the students to 3 decimal places scored under 50? And c) what percentage to 3 decimal places of the students scored between 60 and 80?

Answers

Answer:

My answer: 15.87%

Step-by-step explanation:

The Final grades follows normal distribution.

It means =70

The Given standard deviation =10

The normal random variable of a standard normal distribution is called a standard score or a z-score. In Every normal condition, random variable X will be transformed into a z score via the following equation:

z=(X)

But when X is a normal random variable, μ is the mean of X.

For That, it is X=60

Z=(60−70)/10=−1

P(X<60)=P(Z<−1)

=0.1587

Hence percent of students failed in test is 15.87%

What is the slope intercept of the line below

Answers

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Answer:  [tex]\textsf{Option D, y = 2x - 3}[/tex]

-------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------

Given: [tex]\textsf{The graph}[/tex]

Find: [tex]\textsf{The equation in slope intercept form}[/tex]

Solution: Looking at the graph, we can see that the line intersects the y-axis at -3 therefore that is the y-intercept.  All we need to do now is find a second point so we can determine the slope.  The line crosses at (1, -1) so we will use that as the second point.  Then we just plug all of the values into the slope intercept form.

Determine the slope

[tex]m = \frac{y_2 - y_1}{x_2 - x_1}[/tex][tex]m = \frac{-1 - (-3)}{1 - 0}[/tex][tex]m = \frac{-1 + 3}{1}[/tex][tex]m = \frac{2}{1}[/tex][tex]m = 2[/tex]

Plug in the values

[tex]y = mx + b[/tex][tex]y = 2x - 3[/tex]

Therefore, the option that would best fit the graph that was provided would be option D, y = 2x - 3.

Which statement is correct when a scatterplot is constructed?
The independent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the x-axis.
The independent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the y-axis.
The dependent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the x-axis.
The dependent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the y-axis.

Answers

Option A is the correct answer.

The independent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the x-axis.

What is Variable?

A variable is a symbol and placeholder for a quantity that may change, or any mathematical object. In particular, a variable may represent a number, a vector, a matrix, a function, the argument of a function, a set, or an element of a set.

For the Scatterplot, out of given options,

Option A is the correct option which represents The independent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the x-axis.

Thus, The independent variable is the input variable and should be represented by the x-axis.

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Use the Polygon tool to draw an image of the given polygon under a dilation with a scale factor of 14 and center of dilation ​(0, 0)​.

Answers

The points are (168, 168) , (168,56) , (112,0) , (70,112)

Given a scale factor is 14 and the center of dilation (0,0)

We need to find the Points using the scale factor and polygon tool

Now to find the new points the equation is

(old points - dilation center)*scale factor + dilation center

As we know the origin is the dilation center which simplifies to

(old point)*dilation center

(12,12) * 14  =  (168,168)

(12,4) * 14 = (168, 56)

(8,0)*14  =   (112, 0)

(5,8) *14  = (70, 112)

Hence the new points are  (168, 168) , (168,56) , (112,0) , (70,112)

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Y-6.37x=-3 which of the following function notation corresponds to the equation below

Answers

Wheres the other part of the question

What is the mean for 14,14,14,15,15,15,15,15,16,16,16,16,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,18,18,18,18,18,18,18,19,19,19,19,20,20,20,20,20,21,21,21,21,22,22,22,23,23,23,23,23,24,24,24,24,24,24,25,25,25,25

Answers

Answer:

Mean: 19.366666666667

Step-by-step explanation:

Mean: Average of the Data set

If you add the numbers below and divide them by the amount of numbers there are, you will get the average of the data set.

14,14,14,15,15,15,15,15,16,16,16,16,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,17,18,18,18,18,18,18,18,19,19,19,19,20,20,20,20,20,21,21,21,21,22,22,22,23,23,23,23,23,24,24,24,24,24,24,25,25,25,25

Average= sum/count

Mean= 1162 / 60

Mean= 19.366666666667

Rounded to the nearest tenth: 19.4

Rounded to the nearest hundredth: 19.37

world problem in length (trigonometry) geometry not chemistry

Answers

Answer:

≈ 47.2 m

Step-by-step explanation:

let the height from the sea to the base of lighthouse be h₁

let the height from the sea to the top of the lighthouse be h₂

using the tangent ratio in the right triangle

tan55.1° = [tex]\frac{opposite}{adjacent}[/tex] = [tex]\frac{h_{1} }{610}[/tex] ( multiply both sides by 610 )

h₁ = 610 tan55.1°

tan56.5° = [tex]\frac{h_{2} }{610}[/tex] ( multiply both sides by 610 )

h₂ = 610 tan56.5°

then

height of lighthouse = h₂ - h₁        

                                  = 610 tan56.5° - 610 tan55.1°

                                  = 610(tan56.5° - tan55.1° )

                                 ≈ 47.2 m ( to the nearest tenth )

In the past month, Ryan has had five pizzas delivered. He kept a record of how long it took to get the
pizzas: 35 minutes, 25 minutes, 15 minutes, 40 minutes, and 50 minutes.
If the sixth time he orders pizza, it takes 95 minutes, how will this affect his data?
a.) It will have little to no effect on both the mean and the median.
b.) It will have little to no effect on the mean, but it will make the median a less useful measure
of center.
c.) It will make both the mean and the median less useful measures of center.
d.) It will have little to no effect on the median, but it will make the mean a less useful measure
of center.

Answers

It will have little to no effect on the median, but it will make the mean a less useful measure of center.

How to determine the effect?

The initial data elements are given as:

35, 25, 15, 40, 50

When a new data element is added, we have:

35, 25, 15, 40, 50, 95

See that 95 is far from the other data elements.

This means that 95 is an outlier of the data elements

Outliers have effects on the mean and it renders the mean useless.

However, it has little to no effect on the median

Hence, the true statement is (d)

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Answer:

Step-by-step explanation:

it will have little to no effect on the median but will make the mean a less useful measure of center.

please help me with this problem ! would appreciate it!!!

Answers

[tex]1) \text{ } 2^{1/2}=\sqrt{2}\\\\2) \text{ } 2^{2/3}=\sqrt[3]{2^{2}}\\\\3) \text{ } 3^{3/2}=\sqrt{3^{3}}\\\\4) \text{ } 3^{1/3}=\sqrt[3]{3}[/tex]

Answer: correct radical forms are:

[tex]2^\frac{1}{2} = \sqrt{2}[/tex]

[tex]2^\frac{2}{3} = \sqrt[3]{2}[/tex]

[tex]3^\frac{3}{2} = \sqrt[]{3^3}[/tex]

[tex]3^\frac{1}{3} = \sqrt[3]{3}[/tex]

Step-by-step explanation:

Radical form : If n is a positive integer that is greater than 1 and a is a real number then, [tex]\sqrt[n]{a} =a^\frac{1}{n}[/tex] where n is called the index, a is called the radicand, and the symbol √ is called the radical.

therefore,  

radical form of given values are :

[tex]2^\frac{1}{2} = \sqrt{2}[/tex]

[tex]2^\frac{2}{3} = \sqrt[3]{2}[/tex]

[tex]3^\frac{3}{2} = \sqrt[]{3^3}[/tex]

[tex]3^\frac{1}{3} = \sqrt[3]{3}[/tex]

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Which statement describes the end behavior of the function f(x)= |x-7| -7?

A. As x approaches negative infinity, f(x) approaches negative infinity.
B. As x approaches negative infinity, f(x) approaches positive infinity.
C. As x approaches positive infinity, f(x) is no longer continuous.
D. As x approaches positive infinity, f(x) approaches negative infinity.

Answers

Answer:

A. B. C. D.

Step-by-step explanation:

because Which statement describes the end behavior of the function f(x)= |x-7| -7?

A. As x approaches negative infinity, f(x) approaches negative infinity.

B. As x approaches negative infinity, f(x) approaches positive infinity.

C. As x approaches positive infinity, f(x) is no longer continuous.

D. As x approaches positive infinity, f(x) approaches negative infinity.

A jug of drinking water contained 1 2/3 gallons. If 5/7 gallon is drinked each day, how much water was left in the jug after 2 days?

Answers

Answer:

The answer is 5/21 water left in the jug after 2 days.

Step-by-step explanation:

First convert 1 2/3 into a improper fraction. This will turn it into 5/3. After this, find a common denominator between 5/7 and 5/3. This common denominator is 21. Now, convert both fractions into a fraction with 21 as the denominator. This will transform 5/7 into 15/21, and 5/3 into 35/21. So we know from the equation that 15/21 is drank every day. So we multiply 15/21 by 2, which will make it 30/21. 35/21 will stay the same. Now we do 35/21 - 30/21, which gives you the final answer of 5/21 water left in the jug after 2 days.

Hope this helps!

What is the exact value of sin (- 105)?​

Answers

Answer:

Just put it into a calculator

0.97053528353

[tex]\text{Let's find the sine of -105 degrees}\\\text{Start by typing -105 into our calculator}\\\text{and click the sin button}\\\text{It gives us an irrational number, which is the sine of -105 degrees}[/tex]

[tex]\rule{300}{1.7}[/tex]

[tex]\text{The value is end less, it would take an eternity to type it here,}\\\text{ but I will round it to the nearest 100th}[/tex]

[tex]\rule{300}{1.7}[/tex]

[tex]\text{-0.97}[/tex]

Write and simplify the equation you would use to solve the problem below.

A farmer builds a rectangular pen with a perimeter of 116 feet. If the length is 5 feet more than the width, what is the width?
A.w + 5 = 116
B.4w + 10 = 116
C.2w + 5 = 116
D.2w + 10 = 116

need a hand i cant figure this one out

Answers

Answer:

4w + 10 = 116

Step-by-step explanation:

Call the width w.

The length is 5 more than that, so the length is w + 5

Perimeter is 2w + 2l

2w + 2(w+5) = 116

Distribute the 2 to the values in the parentheses.

2w + 2w + 10 = 116

Combine like terms

4w + 10 = 116

In a study of cell phone usage and brain hemispheric​ dominance, an Internet survey was​ e-mailed to 6965 subjects randomly selected from an online group involved with ears. There were 1302 surveys returned. Use a 0.01 significance level to test the claim that the return rate is less than​ 20%. Use the​ P-value method and use the normal distribution as an approximation to the binomial distribution

Answers

The hypothesis test shows that we reject the null hypothesis and there is sufficient evidence to support the claim that the return rate is less than 20%

What is the claim that the return rate is less than 20% by using a statistical hypothesis method?

The claim that the return rate is less than 20% is p < 0.2. From the given information, we can compute our null hypothesis and alternative hypothesis as:

[tex]\mathbf{H_o :p =0.2}[/tex]

[tex]\mathbf{H_i:p < 0.2}[/tex]

Given that:
Sample size (n) = 6965

Sample proportion [tex]\mathbf{\hat p = \dfrac{x}{n} = \dfrac{1302}{6965} \sim0.1869}[/tex]

The test statistics for this data can be computed as:

[tex]\mathbf{z = \dfrac{\hat p - p}{\sqrt{\dfrac{p(1-p)}{n}}}}[/tex]

[tex]\mathbf{z = \dfrac{0.1869 -0.2}{\sqrt{\dfrac{0.2(1-0.2)}{6965}}}}[/tex]

[tex]\mathbf{z = \dfrac{-0.0131}{0.0047929}}[/tex]

z = -2.73

From the hypothesis testing, since the p < alternative hypothesis, then our test is a left-tailed test(one-tailed.

Hence, the p-value for the test statistics can be computed as:

P-value = P(Z ≤ z)

P-value = P(Z ≤ - 2.73)

By using the Excel function =NORMDIST (-2.73)

P-value = 0.00317

P-value ≅ 0.003

Therefore, we can conclude that since P-value is less than the significance level at ∝ = 0.01, we reject the null hypothesis and there is sufficient evidence to support the claim that the return rate is less than 20%

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Please assist with the following questions​

Answers

The answers for following questions are;

i. $244.64

ii. $ 5314.64

What is future value?

Future value (FV) is the value of a current asset at a future date based on an assumed rate of growth. The future value is important to investors and financial planners, as they use it to estimate how much an investment made today will be worth in the future.

Here, future value or amount;

          A = P(1 + r)ⁿ

Where,

A = future value = ?

P = principal = $ 12,300

r = interest rate = 6%/12 = 0.06/12 = 0.005

n = number of periods = 12 X 6 years = 72

A = P(1 + r)ⁿ

= 12,300(1 + 0.06/12)⁷²

= 12300 (1 + 0.005)⁷²

= 12300 (1.005)⁷²

= 12300 (1.4384)

= 17,614.64

Each monthly payment = Total payment / number of months

= $17,614.64 / 72

= $ 244.64

Total amount of interest = Total payment - Principal payment

                                          =   17,614.64 - 12300

                                          =   $ 5314.64

Thus, The answers for following questions are;

i. $244.64

ii. $ 5314.64

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Translate this sentence into an equation. Craig's savings decreased by 23 is .55

Answers

Answer:

x-23=.55

Step-by-step explanation:

Answer: 0.55 = x - 23

Step-by-step explanation:

let his savings = x

Anna wants to take fitness classes. She compares two gyms to determine which would be the best deal for her. Fit Fast charges a set fee per class. Stepping Up charges a monthly fee, plus an additional fee per class. The system of equations models the total costs for each.

y = 7.5x

y = 5.5x + 10

1. Substitute: 7.5x = 5.5x + 10

Answers

Answer: Y= 37.5

Explanation: X=5 so you will have to substitute X into Y=7.5X and you get Y=37.5

A football team has attempted 6 running plays. The change in field position resulting from each play is shown in the table. Running Play Outcomes Play 1 –3 yards Play 2 2 yards Play 3 –1 yard Play 4 –2 yards Play 5 –3 yards Play 6 1 yard What is the average change in field position per running play? –6 yards per play –1 yard per play 0 yards per play 1 yard per play Mark this and return

Answers

Answer:

Step-by-step explanation:

-3 +2 +-1 +-2 +-3 +1 = -6 yards total

-6 / 6 =  -1 yard per play average

what is the average daily balance for the February 1-28 billing period in the table?​

Answers

i think it’s 311.75?
i added the closing balances and divided by the 4 selected days

either that or 44.54 if you divide by 28 days of February instead…

i might be wrong though

These tables of values represent continuous functions. For which function
will the y-values be the greatest for very large values of x?
y
1 7
2 21
3 63
4 189
5 567
B. x
y
17
2 207
3 407
4 607
5 807
C.xy
1 325
2 400
3 475
4 550
5625
Y
1 565
2 570
3 575
4 580
5585
What is the answer??

Answers

Answer: the answer is a

Step-by-step explanation:

This whole page i need help on

Answers

Step-by-step explanation:

1. True

2. False

3. True

5. Falsw

6.True

7.True

8.False

10.True

15. always

17. always

Help with a composition of two functions! 20 pts for a solution!

Answers

The function (fog)(x) would be (x^4 + 10x² + 27). Also, the domain of (fog)(x) is all the real numbers.

What is a function?

The function is a type of relation, or rule, that maps one input to specific single output.

Given;

f(x) = x² + 2

g(x) =  x² + 5

so, to take the composition of f and g (fog) replace the x in f(x)  with g(x);

(fog)(x) = (x² + 5)² + 2

(fog)(x) = (x^4 + 25 + 10x² )+ 2

(fog)(x) = (x^4 + 10x² + 27)

Also, the domain of (fog)(x) is all the real numbers.

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Packs of stickers
Buy for €1.50a pack
Sell For £2.25 a pack
Media buys 5 pack's and sells them all
How Much profit does she
Make ?

Answers

Answer:

€3.75

Step-by-step explanation:

1. Formulate:

5×(2.25 - 1.5)

2. Calculate:

5×(2.25-1.5)

5× 0.75

=3.75

Answer

3.7/ €3.7

By selling a table for sh.56, gain is as much as percent as its cost in dollars. What is the cost price? By selling a table for sh.56 , gain is as much as percent as its cost in dollars . What is the cost price ?​

Answers

The cost price of the table is $40.

What is Gain ?

Gain is the amount gain by selling the product at a higher price than its cost.

Let the cost of the table is $ x

The percentage gain is x%  (as given in the question)

Cost price = ?

It is known that

Step 1 : Gain = ( selling Price - Cost Price) * 100 / Cost Price

Selling price = 56

Cost Price = $ x

Therefore substituting the value

x = (56 - x) * 100 / x

x² = 5600 - 100x

x² +100x -5600 = 0

Step 2 : Factorizing

x² + 140x - 40 x -5600 = 0

x( x+14 ) -40( x +14) = 0

( x - 40)(x +14) = 0

x = $40

Therefore the cost price of the table is $40.

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Charlotte practices the piano for 4 hours each week. How many minutes does she practice each week?

Answers

charlotte practices 240 minutes per week

Answer:

4 X 60 = 240 minutes

Step-by-step explanation:

there are 60 minutes in each hour

What is 2(x+3) / 4(x+1)

Answers

Answer:

x² + 4x + 3

---------------

       2

---- => fraction line

Other Questions
Which of the following items have elastic demand? (Remember: items that are wants and/or have many substitutes tend to be elastic. Items that are needs and/or have few substitutes tend to be inelastic.) Select all that apply.Group of answer choicesApple JuiceJeansSaltChickenGasolineInsulin Graph the following pair of quadratic functions and describe any similarities/differences observed in the graphs.f(x) = 8x +2h(x) = -8x-2a. fopens upward with a y-intercept at (2, 0); h opens downward with a y-intercept at (-2, 0)b. f opens downward with a y-intercept at (0, -2); h opens upward with a y-intercept at (0, 2)c. fopens downward with a y-intercept a(0, 2); h opens upward with a y-intercept at (0, -2)d. fopens upward with a y-intercept at (0, 2); h opens downward with a y-intercept at (0, -2). Write and balance molecular equations for the following reactions between aqueous solutions. You will need to decide on the formulas and phases of the products in each of the cases. An aqueous solution of barium hydroxide is mixed with an aqueous solution of sulfuric acid. Add the equations. Two-Variable Systems: Elimination (question is linked with the screenshot below) Why would it be hard to study the four major earth systems individually? This year, druehl, inc. , will produce hot water heaters at its plant in delaware, in order to meet expected global demand. To accomplish this, each laborer at the plant will work hours per month. If the labor productivity at the plant is hot water heaters per labor hour, how many laborers are employed at the plant?. Someone is hurt or killed in Texas from an alcohol-related crash every ___minutes Javier is going to a water park with his little brother, Caden. Since Caden is only 4 feet tall, they check to see if he is tall enough to ride the Super Slide. Sadly, the park's website says that he needs to be at least 52 inches tall. How many more inches does Caden need to grow before he is tall enough to ride the Super Slide? The mean diastolic blood pressure for a random sample of 80 people was 100 millimeters of mercury. If the standard deviation of individual blood pressure readings is known to be 11 millimeters of mercury, find a 95% confidence interval for the true mean diastolic blood pressure of all people. Then give its lower limit and upper limit. How would you draw the ionic compound Beryllium Arsenide lewis structure? What elementz of documentation might the health information manager recommend to reduce the risks healthcare Ancient Sumerian kingdoms built their most important temples __________. GIVING 100 POINTS: The graph shown here displays the distance, in miles. traveled by a jet in a certain number of hours. Based on the graph, which of the following equations indicates the correct variables, and in how many hours does the jet travel 12,000 miles if it travels at the same speed?Graph titled Motion of a Jet shows Time in hours on x axis and Distance in miles on y axis. A straight line joins the ordered pairs 0, 0 and 2, 1200 and 4, 2400 and 6, 3600. y = 600x, the jet travels 12,000 miles in 20 hours x = 600y, the jet travels 12,000 miles in 20 hours y = 600x, the jet travels 12,000 miles in 22 hours x = 600y, the jet travels 12,000 miles in 22 hours what is the primary target market for a best cost-provider? Find the domain and range If 343* = 494-x, what is the value of x?5/88/528 Which of the following elements will not easily react with other elements? Explain why? Carbon, Hydrogen, Nitrogen, Helium. Select all the functions that show an inverse variation...a) y=6xb) y=3/xc) y=1/3xd) y= -.07xe) y= 2/x+4f) xy=-3 SAM: Of course it is. That's what Ive been trying to say to you all afternoon. And its beautiful because that is what we want life to be like. But instead, like you said, Hally, were bumping into each other all the time. Look at the three of us this afternoon: Ive bumped into Willie, the two of us have bumped into you, youve bumped into your mother, she bumping into your Dad . . . None of us knows the steps and there's no music playing. And it doesnt stop with us. The whole world is doing it all the time. Open a newspaper and what do you read? America has bumped into Russia. England is bumping into India, rich man bumps into poor man. Those are big collisions, Hally. They make for a lot of bruises. People get hurt in all that bumping, and were sick and tired of it now. It's been going on for too long. Are we never going to get it right? . . . learn to dance life like champions instead of always being just a bunch of beginners at it? HALLY: (Deep and sincere admiration of the man.) You've got a vision, Sam! What effect does this excerpt from Fugard's "Master Harold" . . . and the Boys have? The most common pattern for marginal utility is: